By: Sonny Zulhuda

This November 2009 is marked with the tabling of a long-awaited law in the Parliament of Malaysia: the Personal Data Protection (PDP) Bill 2009. The complete draft can be obtained from the Parliament’s Website. Professor Abu Bakar Munir from University of Malaya has shared with us his views on the overview of the law. My further comments will also follow in due course.

This is a good news for Malaysian public. The days full with series of unsolicited calls and mails from marketers may in the near future be counted. We hope for the best to come out from this legislative exercise. Good luck MPs!

Note: for a related law on credit reporting agencies, you can check another draft Bill on Credit Reporting Agencies Bill from the Parliament’s website.

By: Sonny Zulhuda

Introduction

Malaysia regards electronic commerce as a powerful driver for the national development and economic growth. This belief has be reinforced by the setting up of national policies and laws seeking to ensure that processes, tools and technologies are put in place to facilitate the electronic commerce. Among those laws is the Payment Systems Act (‘PSA’) 2003 (Act 627) which came into force on 1st November 2003). It is a principal legislation which provides for the framework for the regulation and supervision of the payment systems and payment instrument in Malaysia.

When anticipating the birth of this law, the Central Bank Governor emphasized that the study on the legal and regulatory framework was undertaken to enhance the efficiency of payment system and to specifically provide the mandate to the Central Bank of Malaysia to effectively oversee and facilitate greater development of such system in the country.

Basic Features

‘Payment system’ is defined as any system or arrangement for the transfer, clearing or settlement of funds or securities (Section 2). It, however, excludes a payment system operated by the Bank under the Central Bank of Malaysia Act 1958; a clearing house recognized under the Securities Industry Act 1983; a clearing house licensed under the Futures Industry Act 1993; an in-house payment system operated by a person solely for his own administrative purposes that does not transfer, clear or settle funds or securities for third parties; a system that solely facilitates the initiation of payment instructions; and such other systems or arrangements as may be prescribed by the Bank.

Meanwhile, also provided in the same section, ‘payment instrument’ means any instrument, whether tangible or intangible, that enables a person to obtain money, goods or services or to otherwise make payment. It therefore includes credit cards, charge cards, debit cards, and e-money.

The definition of both payment systems and payment instruments makes the application of PSA wide and goes beyond financial entities. It was noted that this Act can even apply to communications service providers licensed under the Communications and Multimedia Act 1998 such as those services offered by way of pre-paid cards and commercial transactions using the mobile phones.

The Role of BNM

The ultimate objectives of PSA 2003 are reflected in its preamble as “to promote monetary stability and a sound financial structure.” This was also to promote a reliable, efficient and smooth operation of the national payment and settlement systems and for ensuring that the national payment and settlement systems policy is directed to the advantage of Malaysia. This noble task will be spearheaded by the Central Bank or Bank Negara Malaysia (BNM).

The task of implementing PSA is not only important but also very urgent. As digital transactions have become widespread, alternative payment methods would essentially be issued and used by variety of institutions. Some would even extend beyond the reach of national boundaries. The Central Bank Governor noted that e-cash and e-commerce will make it increasingly difficult to define and measure monetary aggregates, national income and wealth. Thus, it was noted that capacities and capability of institutions need to be enhanced, while financial infrastructure needs to be put in place and consumers and markets educated accordingly. This Payment Systems Act, it is argued, would provide essential remedies to offer in this new financial environment.

Designated Payment System

By virtue of section 6(1) of this Act, BNM as the governing body is authorised to designate a payment system as a ‘designated payment system’ (‘DPS’) if that payment system poses a systemic risk, or that such designation is necessary to protect the interest of public. ‘Systemic risk’ is defined in section 2 as the risk that “the failure of a participant or operator to meet his payment or settlement obligations will cause another participant to be unable to meet his payment or settlement obligations when due; or the risk that the failure of a participant or operator to meet his payment or settlement obligations may cause significant liquidity or credit problems that might threaten the stability of financial markets.”

The effect of this designation, as prescribed in section 7(1) is to oblige the operators of DPS governance and risk management compliance prescribed by Chapter 2 of the Act. This compliance covers issues of internal management, qualification and appointment of directorship, governance as well as operational arrangements.

Until recently, it is noted that BNM has so far designated two payment systems as DPS, namely the ‘Real Time Electronic Transfer of Funds and Securities System’ or ‘RENTAS’, a real time gross settlement system for the transfer and settlement of funds and book-entry scripless debt securities; and the ‘Sistem Penjelasan Informasi Cek Kebangsaan secara Elektronik’ or ‘eSPICK’, a cheque clearing system for the clearing of cheques.

Designated Payment Instrument

Another important facet of the Act is on the designation of payment instruments at the authority of the BNM. The Central Bank may prescribe any payment instrument as a ‘designated payment instrument’ (‘DPI’) provided that such instrument may be of widespread use as a mean of making payment and may affect the payment systems of Malaysia; and that it is necessary to protect the interest of the public or it is necessary to maintain the integrity, efficiency and reliability of a payment instrument (section 24). Once so prescribed, the DPI operators would have to comply with certain requirements as prescribed in section 25 of the PSA 2003 as well as governance and operational arrangements in sections 27 and 28 respectively.

Under this provision, three types of payment instrument have been so far designated by BNM as DPI, namely (1) charge cards; (2) credit cards; and (3) electronic money which stores funds electronically in exchange of funds paid to the issuer and is able to be used as a mean of making payment to any person other than the issuer.

Safety, Security and Operational Reliability

Given the mandate of this Act, the Central Bank of Malaysia or BNM does assume a huge oversight responsibility for the payment and settlement systems in the country considering the high numbers of usage in Malaysia. As of year 2007, the number of users and subscribers of payment instruments (including credit cards, charge cards, debit cards and e-money) was over 85 million usage with a total value of transaction reaches RM 4.6 million, including Interbank Giro. For this purpose, too, in 2003 BNM requires that each of the DPS and DPI operator to identify, document and submit measures that ensure the safety, security and operational reliability of the payment system/instrument, respectively, including contingency arrangements.

As payment systems are fundamental to the functioning of the economy, it is just natural that the Bank’s oversight activities are directed towards ensuring the reliability of the major payment and settlement systems and mitigating risks in these systems. That is why in practice, the role played by the BNM is not only on systemic risk reduction, but also is extended to promoting an efficient payment and settlement infrastructures and services. This also includes fostering payment innovations and driving towards enhancing safety, security and efficiency of the payment systems. The ultimate objective is to sustain and enhance public confidence in promoting electronic payments.

Final Remarks

As mentioned earlier, this law seeks to enhance the efficiency of payment system and to specifically provide the mandate to the Central Bank of Malaysia to effectively oversee and facilitate greater development of such system in the country. Indeed, the ultimate goal of PSA 2003 is to enhance the efficiency of payment system and to specifically provide the mandate to the banking regulator to effectively oversee and facilitate greater development of such system in the country. Even though the law is only in force for about five years, the law is proven to be influential in facilitating the electronic commerce in Malaysia, particularly its electronic banking practices.

References

• Bank Negara Malaysia, Financial stability and payment system report, (Kuala Lumpur: published by author, 2007)
• Zeti Akhtar Aziz, “Electronic Banking: The Way Forward,” from the Website of Bank Negara Malaysia.
• Zety Akhtar Aziz, “Impact of E-Banking and E-Commerce on Central Banking Functions,” from the Website of Bank Negara Malaysia.
• Payment Systems Act 2003 (Act 627)

By: Sonny Zulhuda

The Internet is now a common platform of over one billion users in the world who exchange information, trade communications and transact commerce every now and then. This is the realization of what the website founders initially sought to achieve, i.e. a two-way communications in the cyberspace where writing information should be as simple as reading it.

At the heart of this phenomenon is now the website log – or blog. Blog is not merely a new technology, but it is now a trend. Individuals use blogs to express their feelings. Companies engage themselves in corporate blogging where they capture beneficial information to upgrade their services and achieve corporate objectives, and where marketers capture potential customers while they advertise for their products. And more pressing of all, blog is now an alternative to conventional media industry where individuals easily publish reports of incidents accompanied by their comments and views while getting rid of editorial and spatial barriers of conventional media. People have now often referred to online blogs to get information on ongoing incidents day to day. Given this situation, the luxury of information is now something of the past.

However, the bright innovation brought by blogs is not shaped only by its advantageous benefits but also by its contentious side. The social structure that has long defined the way we share information through conventional media is now shaking. As the editorial rules are gone in the online blogs, so do perhaps the rules of ethics and law. Except that rules of law, by nature, are equipped by an enforcing power through the instruments of the state. This is why despite the relaxation of other conventional rules of the game; governments are not easily loosening the rules when it comes to infringing rights of other people.

Hence the potential clash between bloggers and the law, especially when the legal rules restricting freedom of speech is implicated. In many jurisdictions, such freedom is subject to many sets of laws against defamation, false speech, hatred, religious beliefs and political stability. In Malaysia, for instance, blogs gained limelight when recently some prominent socio-political bloggers were sued for defamation. Such was among the first of its instance to be settled in court.

In the light of the above, this note sees the importance of undertaking three things: first, assessing the new phenomenon of online reporting by bloggers and their effect to the conventional media. Secondly, investigating legal rules that may restrict bloggers’ activities, citing the special cases of Malaysia. And finally, identifying certain strategic measures for online bloggers in order to minimize liability risks out of their publication online. The main message is to highlight the reality behind cyber world: just because they are online, bloggers are not exempted from certain traditional rules that have long shaped our life. Some adjustments are nevertheless necessary given the special circumstances for which the Internet and the blogs are invented.

Incidents involving bloggers in Malaysia as reported by media:

• On 11 January 2007, two political bloggers, Jeff Ooi and Ahiruddin Attan were sued by the New Straits Times Press (Malaysia) Bhd and its staff over alleged defamatory words posted in their blogs. The plaintiff succesfully obtained court injunction to remove blog postings (The Star, 19 Jan 2007).

• On 23 July 2007, a police report had been lodged against Raja Petra under Sedition Act 1948, the Penal Code and the Communications and Multimedia Act 1988 for blog entries that allegedly contain writing that insult the YDPA, degrade Islam and incite hatred and violence between local ethnic group (The Star 23 July 2007).

• March 2008, High Court in Alor Setar, Kedah ordered Raja Petra to pay RM2 million to UUM and its VC Tan Sri Dr. Nordin Kadi for libellious posting alleging the plaintiff of plagiarism (The Star 27 March 2008)

• Raja Petra was detained under ISA 1960 for his blog comments allegedly insulting Islam and the Prophet Muhammad. (The Star Online, 23 September 2008)

• Another blogger, Syed Azidi Syed Aziz was on 17th September 2008 arrested under the Sedition Act 1948 for publishing an image of the Malaysian flag upside down in his blog and for calling other bloggers to do the same as a sign of protest against the ruling government (The Star 19 Sept 2008).

• Umno Youth has lodged a report against Opposition leader Tian Chua over doctored photos in his blog involving the Deputy PM (The Star 11 July 2007). On a related incident, Nathaniel Tan, an aide to PKR adviser Anwar Ibrahim, was arrested in connection with a doctored picture of DPM posted on the Net (The star 14 July 2007).

• Chief Minister of Sarawak (Taib Mahmud) sued Utusan Malaysia, Malaysiakini and PKR officials over reports making allegations of corrupt practices against him (The Star 17 May 2007).

• In Sessions Court KL, a private school lab assistant was fined RM10,000 in default five months’ jail for posting offensive comments against the Sultan of Perak on the Internet in February 2009. Azrin Md Zain, 33, who is attached to Kota Damansara school, became the first person to be convicted in the summons case under the Multimedia and Communications Act 1998. (The Star, 14 March 2009). On related incidents (All below from the same source):

• In the same court above, self-employed Muslim Ahmad, 54, claimed trial to committing a similar offence in Setapak between Feb 7 and Feb 8.

• In  Petaling Jaya, land surveyor Nor Hisham Osman, 36, pleaded not guilty to committing the same offence  his residence in Seri Kembangan on Feb 11.

• In KOTA KINABALU, mobile phone shop owner Rutinin Suhaimin, 36, pleaded not guilty before Sessions Court judge Ummu Kalthom Abdul Samad who fixed May 25 and 26 for trial. Rutinin allegedly committed a similar offence at 6.33pm on Feb 13 at a shop in the interior Kundasang town at the foothills of Mount Kinabalu. He was released on a RM10,000 bail.

• In BUTTERWORTH, a couple was jointly charged at the Sessions Court with similar offences. Businessman Chan Hon Keong, 26, claimed trial to committing the offence at his house in Permatang Pauh on Feb 13. His wife Khoo Hui Shuang, 27, was not present when the charge was read as she was away in Sarawak. Chan was released on a RM6,000 bail. His case will be mentioned on April 15.

By: Sonny Zulhuda*

Malaysia has over a decade regarded the Information and Communications Technology (ICT) as a powerful tools and engine for growth in future. Related investments and development projects are dramatically boosted and other industrial and social infrastructures also gained the attention.

The consumer side, however, has a different story. While many of consumer concerns were addressed and gradually solved with the coming into force of the Consumer Protection Act (CPA) 1999, one major aspect of consumer protection is somehow lagging behind. The Malaysia’s CPA 1999 makes it clear that its provisions do not apply to those transactions effected by the electronic means. This is in turn resulting in an absurd situation. As one scholar noted, there is absurdity to find that while one can be compensated for a loss due to defective goods or services he or she took from normal transaction, the same cannot be guaranteed for the transaction he or she entered into electronically. What is then the protection offered by law in Malaysia for the e-transaction consumers? The truth is that, there is currently no comprehensive legal framework for protecting e-transaction consumers. It is argued that the law is in changing and developing mode.

Against this background and thesis, this paper investigates the present state of legal and regulatory framework for consumer protection in the electronically-effected transactions/trade in Malaysia. It seeks to examine possible remedies that one can get from other legal instruments such as the recently-enacted Electronic Commerce Act 2006, the Communications and Multimedia Act 1998, the MCMC-supervised General Consumer Code (MCMC) and other related laws.

Latest case law is also discussed to show current direction that the e-transaction consumer protection takes. Proposals on how the situation could be improved will also be considered in this paper. And for that matter, this paper will also make attempts to compare the situation in Malaysia with some other jurisdictions such as Australia and New Zealand.

*) This paper was presented at the 6^th International Conference of Corporate Social Responsibility, 11-14 June 2007, Kuala Lumpur, jointly with Mr. Md. Fazlul Karim.

By: Sonny Zulhuda *

The tremendous participation of companies in technological race and in exploiting the cyberspace is often marked with over-excitement and the sense of lawlessness. This is not true if one regards the cyberspace as a space without rule. The fact remains that there are rules in cyberspace just as people have rules in the real physical world.

When it comes to the notion of corporate social responsibility (‘CSR’), the matter may become more confusing: what kind of responsibility companies could have, and to whom they owe such responsibility. Assume that an online business entity does not have a physical presence – not physically registered, therefore not legally incorporated: does it assume a corporate status to subject it to the CSR? As for the incorporated ones, question may arise as to what responsibilities they bear when embarking in the online environment and to whom they are owed.

Indeed, the discussion of CSR in the cyberspace era is duly warranted because cyber world is, more often than not, misunderstood as somehow law-free and ethics-free. This may lead corporations to believe that they can do so many things in cyberspace which are otherwise prohibited in physical world. Hence CSR could be for them another myth of cyberspace, and as a result, online consumer protection could be negated, law compliance ignored, and communal interests were left behind. All what they can do is to gain on others’ pain.

This paper seeks to establish this relationship; that CSR does exist in the cyberspace. Companies that conduct their commercial activities within or through the cyberspace shall remain committed about their social responsibility, amid in different context. There are rules that companies must live by even when they are totally online. Even though the rules may vary in different jurisdictions, the ethical principles would remain universal. And some of them had even been given a universal platform such as corporate behavior on data security and privacy protection. It is this fundamental understanding that this paper wish to create.

*) This paper abstract was presented the 6^th International Conference of Corporate Social Responsibility, 11-14 June 2007, Kuala Lumpur.

By: Sonny Zulhuda*

Information is the lifeblood of today’s business, and the corporate citizens cannot agree more on this in the present fiercely competitive world, where the source of power has to be redefined, and wealth creation needs to be re-identified. The raw data that in the past just remained in the archives had now become the goose that lays the golden eggs. These golden eggs are in the form of valuable information assets from which the companies exploit and generate their wealth.

Bunch of those raw data, however, do not exclusively belong to the companies who retain them. The customers database, for example, may be a collection of personal, financial and commercial information that originally belong to individuals – either of those internal parties such as employees and shareholders; or of external stakeholders including customers, business partners, and vendors/suppliers.. Can companies regard them as their own property? This may be a contentious issue, depending on how the data was initially obtained: where, from whom, and in what manner or circumstances.

The current paper seeks to examine what information-based companies need to caution themselves when dealing with their corporate data especially those relate to personal information of individuals. It views this issue using the framework of internationally-accepted information security principles that include the aspects of data confidentiality, integrity and availability. It also examines the ethical and legal concerns on the rights of data subjects whose personal information are retained, used and exploited by the companies.

The thesis on which this paper starts with is that corporate behavior on the personal data of stakeholders depends so much on the pressure of law or authorities. Without which, the misuse is increasingly rampant due to the potentially lucrative gains recoverable from information assets. More specifically, this paper proposes to do certain tasks. First, it examines the rise of information assets and their significance for corporate organizations. Secondly, it observes consumers’ concerns over the misuse of their personal data retained by the companies. And subsequently, it analyzes various attempts by the governments –notably in the US and European jurisdictions– to control corporate behavior on dealing with personal information. In this respect, Malaysian state of affairs will also be discussed briefly.

* This paper was presented at the 6^th International Conference of Corporate Social Responsibility, 11-14 June 2007, Kuala Lumpur.

By: Sonny Zulhuda*

In today’s globalized economy, the way people store, reformulate and process information – and eventually generate revenues out of it, had marked the shift of attention from a raw material-based and labor-exploiting business to the information and knowledge-based entrepreneurship. Information is increasingly becoming not only a buzz-word for executives but also the goose that lays the golden eggs.

In response to this trend, this paper attempts to do two things; first, revisiting the notion of information as a business asset, and secondly, analyzing how this notions is responded by the law. The first part seeks to reconfirm that information is the new big thing in today’s business that is characterized by globalization, digitization and deregulation of rules. The second describes and analyzes how the law –notably at the judges’ hands– contributes to the strengthening of this notion by tendency to recognize the proprietary status of information – something that is not so well established just yet.

The thesis here is that the law is in a changing mode. International and Malaysian cases are referred. It is argued that the lawmakers and all law stakeholders should give a serious thought about this so as to reshape the law into the more information age-friendly one.

* This paper was presented at the 4^th World Congress of the Association of Global Business Advancement, 21-25 May 2007, Penang, Malaysia.

By: Sonny Zulhuda *

Like other ICT inventions that promise both unprecedented benefits and scaring risks, Internet banking has been received by both excitement and worries. While it offers high level of effectiveness such as online fund transfer as easy as from customers’ home desktop, it also haunts many as reflected in incidents involving theft of personal access code, tracing of online footprints and intrusion of online activities of other customers.

In Malaysia, Internet banking is still at its infancy though the number of service providers is increasing. Unfortunately, some crucial areas are left unclear for Internet banking consumers. This includes issues of distribution of liability between Internet banking stakeholders, use of personal data of bank customers, and low level of consumer protection provided by Internet banking operators. Furthermore, serious risks are awaiting consumers since the country’s consumer protection law statute is not applicable to commercial activities effected by information and communications technologies (ICT).

The thrust of this paper is to highlight general condition of Internet banking services in Malaysia from legal perspective, discuss its weaknesses and recommend measures to fill the flaws. Reference will be made to several pieces of legislation that apply to Internet banking services. On top of that it seeks to critically analyze the guidelines of Internet banking services issued by Malaysian central bank.

Besides, the paper pursues discussion on those various legal issues reflected in the laws, guidelines and practices in Malaysia against international regime and practices from other countries. From the various associated risks to issues of prudential regulations and supervision in Internet banking. The message to be forwarded in this paper is that if the Internet banking services can be safely delivered and well risk-managed, the whole process would be able to achieve better corporate governance in Malaysian e-banking institutions, and in turn it would deliver maximum business effectiveness and efficiency.

* This paper abstract was prepared for the 3^rd World Congress of International Society of Business, Economics and Ethics (ISBEE), 14-17 July 2004, Melbourne, Australia, jointly with Prof. Abu Bakar Munir.

By: Sonny Zulhuda *

The information economy derives its name from the fact that information has become a powerful source of wealth for today’s corporations. Understandably there comes the rising demand to ensure this promised wealth is not unnecessarily missed. For this, today’s corporate world witnesses a great evolution in terms of the way they run the business by adopting the advantage of information and communications technologies (ICT). These tools have been increasingly exploited in order to secure the wealth as promised by the information age.

The controversial part that pursues, however, centers at the clash of demands from the two different ends of the business: corporations and consumers. In one hand, corporations wish to secure as many informational assets as possible that include consumers’ personal information. On the other hand, consumers have now demanded for higher protection on their privacy right including right to control the flow and use of their own personal information. Because of this apparent controversy, in some part of the world, businesses are forced to make some adjustments on their dealing with personal data and information. This appears to be very crucial for them in order to win the consumers’ confidence.

The objective of this paper is to highlight the issue of privacy and personal data protection in the current setting of electronic business. Even though this is a global and trans-border issue, the paper seeks to limit its scope into the position in Asia Pacific region. It therefore seeks to identify legal regimes in countries like Malaysia, Singapore, Australia and other countries in the region that may have initiated certain protection on personal data. Along this line, relevant European Directive will also be touched due to its far-reaching impact on regional legal development.

Clear understanding of these issues will determine the next questions to be resolved in this paper: can businesses survive and significantly grow with the increasing demand to restrict the use and flow of personal information? How to reach the synergy between the two with the help of existing legal regimes? Or is it just impossible for the two to synergize and reconcile? The thesis of this paper is that the two should preserve and enhance each other by adopting business best practices that is inline with the requirements of law and consumers alike.

* This paper abstract was prepared for the 3^rd World Congress of International Society of Business, Economics and Ethics (ISBEE), 14-17 July 2004, Melbourne, Australia, jointly with Prof. Abu Bakar Munir.

Oleh: Sonny Zulhuda *

Pengantar

Bulan Agustus tahun 2003 ini menyaksikan Republik Indonesia memasuki tahun ke-58 kemerdekaannya dari penjajahan kolonial Jepang dan Belanda. Perayaan kemerdekaan ini mungkin bisa dikatakan sebagai perayaan yang paling meriah di seantero jagat. Bendera-bendera dikibarkan di gedung-gedung pemerintah, sekolah, kantor-kantor perusahaan, juga di rumah-rumah kompleks dan kampung, meskipunharus dipaksakan diatas atap. Mulut-mulut gang setiapkampung dihias dengan gapura dan umbul-umbul yang berwarna-warni. Stasiun-stasiun TV berlomba-lomba menyajikan acara khusus menyambut kemerdekaan. Lomba-lomba rakyat diadakan mulai dari kampung, komplek, sampai ke kampus. Yang tak kalah menarik, sebagian masyarakat merasa perlu melakukan ziarah, haul dan selametan di kubur-kubur pendahulu yang dianggap bisa memudahkan rejeki mereka.

Saking gregetnya perayaan ini, sampai-sampai seorang ilmuwan sastra dan sejarah Malaysia, Dr. Siddiq Fadhil dalam bukunya Melayu Baru merasa perlu menyebut fenomena itu untuk dicontoh oleh negara Malaysia dalam menyambut kemerdekaannya.

Sayangnya, lebih sering terjadi perayaan dan peringatan hari kemerdekaan Indonesia itu hanya menunjukkan fenomena romantisme sejarah. Memang, cerita kemerdekaan Indonesia telah meninggalkan berbagai cerita heroik dalam literatur perjuangan bangsa. Namun,lebih dari itu, kita perlu melakukan renungan lebih jauh, hendak kemana pembangunan bangsa diarahkan? Hendak diisi dengan perjuangan yang bagaimana kemerdekaan ini? Hendak dimulai dari mana? Pertanyaan-pertanyan inilah yang perlu kita perbaharui setiap kali kita memperingati hari kemerdekaan ini.

Uraian singkat dibawah ini mencoba menelaah situasi dan permasalahan hukum di Indonesia berdasarkan pertanyaan-pertanyaan di atas. Perenungan ini akan diawali dengan kilas balik cita-cita negara hukum yang dicanangkan oleh para pendiri negara Republik Indonesia, dan akan dilanjutkan dengan beberapa permasalahan dan perkembangan reformasi hukum Indonesia ke depan. Tulisan ini tidak bermaksud mencatat seluruh perjalanan perkembangan sistem hukum di Indonesia, namun akan terkonsentrasi kepada beberapa permasalahan aktual dalam kerangka reformasi hukum nasional.

Prinsip Negara Hukum (Rechtstaat)

Dari berbagai teori tentang perkembangan dan pembangunan hukum, peran hukum tidak pernah terlepas dari keterkaitannya dengan pembangunan masyarakat. Hukum dianggap representasi institusional dan struktural bagi sebuah masyarakat yang hidup pada masa tertentu. Segala norma dan praktik masyarakat disadurkan kedalam institusi yang disebut hukum.

Berdasarkan pemahaman diatas, kesimpulan dapat ditarik bahwa hukum yang baik tentu akan terefleksi dari sebuah masyarakat yang baik pula. Namun hubungan sebab akibat ini tidak berjalan searah, karena pada kenyataannya, pembangunan hukum juga dianggap sebagai salah satu faktor utama bagi perbaikan keadaan sebuah masyarakat. Jadi pada lain kesempatan, bukan saja masyarakat yang membentuk hukum, tapi hukumlah yang juga turut andil membentuk masyarakat.

Dalam konteks yang terakhir ini, dapat dipahami betapa pembangunan sektor hukum menjadi sebuah ide yang senantiasa dilaungkan di negeri kita ketika tuntutan untuk membentuk sebuah masyarakat yang adil sejahtera dicanangkan dalam perjuangan.

Dalam mempersiapkan infrsruktur negara Republika Indonesia yang akan lahir, Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia (PPKI) merasa perlu memastikan pembangunan aspek hukum ini dipastikan alur dan jalannya. Ditegaskanlah didalam konstitutsi kita (UUD 1945) bahwa Indonesia menganut prinsip Rechtstaat, yang berarti Negara Hukum. Menurut konsep ini, pertama,  negara digariskan berdasarkan aturan dan hukum yang disepakati. Hukum diangkat martabatnya dengan mengusung konsep kedaulatan hukum. Kedua, semua warga negara Indonesia harus tunduk kepada hukum, atau yang biasa disebut prinsip keserataan hukum. Dan yang ketiga, dengan prinsip Rechtstaat ini, negara harus menjamin penegakan hukum yang indepnden dari kuasa ekesekutif. Dari poin yang terakhir ini konsep trias politika diperkenalkan di Indonesia dengan membagi-bagi kekuasaan diantara eksekutif (Presiden), legislatif (DPR) dan juga yudikatif (Mahkamah Agung).

Konsep Trias Politika memang tidak sepenuhnya dilekasanakan secara murni. Pada awalnya, konstitusi kita memang merupakan hibrida dari berbagai sistem konstitusi yang ada. Contohnya adalah penggunaan sistem presidensial yang mengacu kepada sistem AS, sementara konsep MPR mengacu dari konstitusi CIna. Akibat langsung dari formulasi hibrida ini, konstitusi kita tidak secara tegas dan ketat menerapkan trias politika. Padahal, seharusnya dengan wksistensi MPR, pembagian kekuasaan ini dapat lebih terealisasi dengan baik.

Koreksi terhadap Politik Hukum Kolonial

Walhasil, prinsip Rechtstaat ini mencoba mengoreksi keadaan masyarakat yang morat marit setelah dicabik-cabik kuku penjajahan selama beberapa abad lamanya. Pertama, politik hukum kolonial Belanda memberlakukan klasifikasi subjek hukum menjadi tiga kelas: kelas Eropa, kelas Asia perantau (Tionghoa dan Arab), dan yang terakhir seta terendah, kelas pribumi. Politik hukum ini jelas bertentangan dengan asas keserataan hukum.

Kedua, politik hukum kolonial Belanda telah mengaburkan peta historis hukum di Indonesia. Sejak berabad-abad lamanya, hukum yang berkembang di tanah nusantara telah terinspirasi oleh hukum Islam yang saat itu telah menyebar di berbagai kawasan dan daerah. Secara logikanya, hal ini sama sekali tidak aneh, karena penyebaran agama Islam selalu disertai dengan semangat untuk mengimplementasikan hukum yang berdasarkan Syariat Islam dengan mengakomodasi adat setempat. Adat sendiri diakui dalam yurisprudensi hukum Islam sebagai salahsatu inspirasi penemuan hukum, tentunya selama itu tidak bertentangan dengan prinsip-prinsip Syariat.

Dalam kaitannya dengan ini, cukup menarik dilihat bahwa terminologi hukum dan peradilan di Indonesia sejak masa lalu didominasi oleh terminologi bahsa Arab yang tentunya dibawa oleh tradisi Islam ke Indonesia. Untuk contohnya saja, kata-kata hukum, hakim, mahkamah, terdakwa, ikrar, adil, pengadilan, musyawarah, kuat, zalim, rakyat, kaidah, majlis, dan lain sebagainya.

Bukti empiris penerimaan hukum Islam ini dapat ditelusuri dengan adanya peninggalan-peninggalan sejarah berupa literatur yang mengarah kepada keadaan ini. Nyata bahwa keberadaan hukum Islam telah tersebar di Nusantara dan mendapatkan tempat yang khusus. (Rifyal Ka’bah, 1999:69-74). Berdasarkan kajian ilmiah dan objektif, seorang ahli hukum Belanda zaman kolonial LCW. Van den Berg (hidup di abad 19) mengukuhkan kesaksiannya bahwa hukum yang berlaku bagi masyarakat Muslim di Indonesia ketika itu adalah hukum Islam. Kesaksiannya ini direkamkan ke dalam teorinya yang terkenal, Receptio in Complexu. Berdasarkan teori inilah pemerintah kolonial Belanda pada awalnya mengakui secara de jure dan de fakto bahwa hukum Islam di Indonesia memang telah berlaku, dan juga diimplementasikan oleh pengadilan-pengadilan agama di berbagai pelosok Nusantara.

Akan tetapi pendirian ini tidak bertahan, karena pemerintah kolonial Belanda merasa perlu merekayasa pembangunan hukum di Indonesia ketika itu agar tetap terkontrol dan tidak menimbulkan kondisi subversif. Ringkasnya, dilakukanlah rekayasa historis melalui teori Receptie yang dilaungkan secara sistematis oleh dua orang sarjana Belanda Cornelis van Vollenhoven dan Snouck Hurgronje. Menurut teori ini, dikatakan hukum Islam tidak pernah secara murni dipraktikkan di Indonesia, yang ada adalah hukum Islam diterima dan diimplementasikan selama ia tidak bertentangan dengan hukum adat. Jadi, menurut teori ini, yang berlaku adalah hukum adat. Melalui rekayasa ini, ada dua hal yang terjadi. Pertama, hukum Islam kehilangan basis yuridis dalam sistem hukum nasional, dan kedua, hukum adat dipertentangkan dengan hukum Islam.

Implikasi lebih jauh lagi terhadap teori ini, diciptakanlah sistem hukum yang dipaksakan. Sistem peradilan diduakan menjadi sistem peradilan sipil dan agama. Kewenangan peradilan agama di Nusantara tereliminir sehingga hanya mencakup perkara-perkara yang bersifat personal seperti hukum perkawinan, perceraian, waris, wakaf dan hak menjaga anak. Sementara sebagian besar dialihkan ke bawah kewenagan pengadilan sipil. Keadaan-keadaan diatas inilah yang diantaranya hendak dikoreksi oleh prinsip Rechtstaat, yaitu menciptakan sebuah negara yang berdaulat kepada hukum. Bukan sebaliknya hukum yang berdaulat kepada negara.

Negara Hukum: ‘Rule of Law’ atau ‘Law of the Ruler’?

Prof. Hazairin (1985:51) mengatakan bahwa hukum tidak dapat dilepaskan dari perikatannya dengan penguasa. Ini sejalan dengan konsep positivisme hukum yang memandang bahwa hukum tidak dapat berdiri tanpa didukung oleh kekuatan yang dipatuhi (binding force) dan diancam dengan hukum yang pasti (punishment). Oleh itulah hukum akan selalu terikat dengan penguasa, bukan untuk didikte dan direkayasa, namun untuk difasilitasi pelaksanaannya.

Pada kenyataannya, seiring dengan idiom politik, kekuasaan selalu berusaha untuk merebut, mempertahankan dan memperluas diri dengan berbagai cara. Tak luput, hukum dan perundangan telah dianggap sebagai salah satu cara ampuh untuk mempertahankan kekuasaan. Fenomena ini selalu hadir di depan mata kita, mulai dari jama kolonial Belanda hingga pasca kemerdekaan dengan berbagai pemerintahan yang terbentuk. Hasilnya, badan peradilan Indonesia bukannya melakukan kontrol efektif terhadap kekuasaan (dalam hal ini eksekutif dan legislatif), justru malah membiarkannya tanpa pengawasan.

Seorang Indonesianis asal Australia, Tim Lindsey (1999:13) berpendapat bahwa cita-cita negara hukum di Indonesia telah tercemar pertama kali secara resminya pada era demokrasi terpimpin oleh Soekarno pada awal dekade 60-an. Yang berlaku saat itu adalah hukum revolusi. Dan parameter keadilan saat itu adalah konsep ‘revolusi’ Bung Karno. Walhasil, segala perilaku dan aktivitas yang tidak revolusioner akan berujung pada intimidasi, kekalahan, dan biasanya penjara. ‘Hukum’ yang sehat seperti tidak mendapatkan tempat. Dan, sesuai dengan idiom yang pernah dilontarkan Liebknecht yang digaungkan oleh Presiden pertama kita, ‘You cannot make a revolution with lawyers’. Intinya, revolusi tidak memberikan tempat untuk hukum dan para aktivisnya.

Di era Orde Baru, bersaing dengan penyakit KKN yang menggejala di seluruh lini kehidupan masyarakat, problematika lemahnya kedaulatan hukum juga menjadi sebab timbulnya gerakan reformasi yang memuncak dengan jatuhnya Soeharto pada tahun 1998. Berbagai produk hukum yang dikeluarkan memasung hak masyarakat untuk mendapatkan pelayanan hukum yang berdaulat dan sama rata. Oleh itu, supremasi hukum menjadi salah satu tuntutan utama gerakan reformasi tahun 1998.

Agenda Reformasi Hukum

Dari mana kita memulai reformasi bidang hukum? Komisi Hukum Nasional (KHN) yang didirikan di era reformasi kini sibuk dengan berbagai agenda reformasi hukum di Indonesia. Secara gamblangnya, agenda reformasi itu dibagi kepada tiga sektor: pertama, pendidikan dan sosialisasi hukum, kedua, agenda perundang-undangan, dan ketiga, reformasi institusi peradilan dan perundangan.

Dalam kaitannya dengan agenda reformasi nasional ini, ada beberapa fokus yang kiranya perlu diberikan perhatian melalui paper ini untuk merealisasikan reformasi di bidang hukum. Diagram berikut memberikan gambaran agenda reformasi tersebut:

Sistem Hukum Milik Semua: Melepas Kekangan Sistem Kolonial

Seperti diketahui, sistem hukum Indonesia merupakan paduan tiga sistem hukum yang berbeda: sistem hukum kolonial Belanda, sistem hukum Islam, dan sistem hukum Adat. (Busthanul Arifin, 1996). Adapun secara struktural, sistem hukum Belanda lebih banyak berpengaruh, terutama yang masih kental sampai sekarang di bidang hukum tata negara, hukum pidana, perdata, hukum acara, dan bidang-bidang hukum publik lainnya. Karena pengaruh yang cukup kentara ini, sistem hukum Indonesia lebih dikenal sebagai sistem hukum Civil Law yang berakar pada sistem Roman Law (Tim Lindsey, 1999:1). Sistem ini popular di negara-negara kontinental seperti Perancis, Jerman, dan kemudiannya dibawa oleh Belanda ke tanah Indonesia.

Nuansa Civil Law memang masih sangat kental dalam sistem hukum nasional. Bahkan undang-undang kolonial Belanda yang masih berlaku sebelum diundangkannya UU Advokat tahun 2003, menyatakan bahwa yang layak untuk mewakili gugatan di pengadilan selaku penasehat hukum adalah mereka yang berkelulusan sarjana hukum, baik itu di Indonesia ataupun di negeri Belanda. Selain itu, dalam mempertimbangkan terobosan-terobosan baru, seringkali ahli hukum kita terbentur dengan kenyataan bahwa sistem kita yang Civil Law tidak mengakuinya.

Nuansa dan pengakuan sistem Civil Law di Indonesia sudah sedemikian mengakar dalam benak para praktisi dan penegak hukum kita seperti yang pernah dikritisi oleh kepala Badan Pembinaan Hukum Nasional (BPHN) dalam uraiannya kepada penulis. Dan memang, perspektif Civil Law ini malah merugikan kita, dikarenakan beberapa sebab:

Pertama, dengan mengkalisfikasikan negara kita sebagai bersistemkan Civil Law, maka perkembangan hukum kita akan bergerak sangat terbatas dan terkesan terisolasi.

Kedua, karena Indonesia secara geografis, ekonomis dan politis lebih dekat dengan negara-negara yang bersistemkan Common Law. (Contohnya Malaysia, Singapura, Australia, Brunei, Amerika Serikat, Hongkong, India, Pakistan).

Ketiga, sistem hukum Civil Law lebih sulit berkembang dibandingkan sistem hukum dunia yang lainnya, yaitu sistem Common Law atau Anglo Saxon Law yang brekembang di Inggris dan bekas koloninya. Ini disebabkan:

1. Sistem Civil Law pada asalnya dirumuskan dalam sebuah kodifikasi hukum yang dibuat oleh para ahli hukum negara tertentu. (Baca: Roman Law in the European Histroy). Adapun Common Law banyak terinspirasi oleh praktik yang ditemui di dalam masyarakat dan disadur ke dalam keputusan hakim serta peraturan verbal (rules of equity, seperti pepatah petitih dalam adat Sumatera). Perbedaan ini menyebabkan perundangan Civil Law tidak lebih hidup dibanding dengan sistem lainnya. Kenyataannya, sistem hukum Common Law menjadi lebih peka dan cepat dalam menjawab tantangan global.
2. Sistem Civil Law tidak menganut asas yurisprudensi mengikat. Yurisprudensi (yaitu keputusan-keputusan hakim yang terdahulu) dijadikan sumber ketetapan hukum dalam skala yang sangat terbatas. Adapun dalam sistem Common Law, doktrin preseden mengikat sangat mewarnai perkembangan hukum dan perundangan.

Maka, dengan pertimbangan-pertimbangan diatas, sudah saatnya kita melepas kekangan baju sistem Civil Law yang selama ini kita anut sejalan dengan semangat kemerdekaan. Sudah saatnya para praktisi, penegak dan akademisi hukum kita membuka diri dari belenggu perspektif kolonialis. Diperlukan sebuah perspektif hukum yang bertujuan untuk kesejahteraan masyarakat Indonesia, yaitu yang menggunakan paradigma sendiri, agar hukum menjadi milik semua.

Perspektif yang perlu dibangun mestilah sebuah reformulasi sistem hukum nasional yang mengadopsi prinsip-prinsip hukum adapt, hukum agama, dan juga hukum moderen Barat tanpa harus tersekat oleh pagar Civil Law ala Belanda.

Undang-undang Untuk Semua: Harapan Membangun Kontrol Masyarakat

Seperti yang diutarakan sebelumnya, hukum telah terasosiasi dengan penguasa. Dan pada kenyataannya, perangkat hukum dan perundangan sering dijadikan alat untuk mempertahankan kekuasaan, baik itu di eksekutif maupun legislatif. Timbul pertanyaan, bagaimana kalau pemerintah di kedua badan negara itu menghasilkan sebuah produk undang-udang yang berbenturan dengan prinsip-prinsip konstitusional dan merugikan rakyat banyak?

Dalam hal ini, prinsip pengawasan yudisial (judicial review) terhadap produk perundangan menjadi sangat penting. Dengan adanya proses judicial review ini, setiap produk perundangan yang dihasilkan oleh badan legislatif akan diuji secara materil apakah prangkat perundangan itu sejalan dengan prinsip konstitusional termasuk hak asasi warga negara.

Di berbagai konstitusi negara modern, sistem undang-undangnya selalu menempatkan sebuah mekanisme untuk melakukan proses judicial review ini. Mekanisme ini ada yang dipikulkan kepada mahkamah agungnya seperti di Amerika Serikat, Inggris dan juga Malaysia. Ada pula yang dinisbahkan kepada bada peradilan khusus yang disebut peradilan konstitusi (constitutional court) sperti di Perancis dan Jerman.

Di Malaysia, Mahkamah Persekutuan (Federal Court) diberikan wewenang untuk melakukan judicial review ini, yang dalam istilah kita disebut uji materil. Uji materil ini dilakukan melalui dua jalur. Pertama, melalui permintaaan Yang Dipertuan Agong, dan yang kedua, berdasarkan gugatan biasa di pengadilan. (Ahmad Ibrahim, 1995:238-239).

Di Indonesia, Mahkamah Agung hanya diberikan wewenang terbatas, yaitu untuk menguji materil sebuah produk perundangan di bawah level Undang-undang (UU). Walhasil, produk UU terbiarkan tanpa kontrol. Dengan keadaan begitu, produk UU bisa bergesekan dengan pagar konstitusi dan merugikan warga negara. Biasanya, kasus yang paling sering muncul adalah ketika produk perundangan mulai memberikan batasan pada bidang hak asasi manusia (HAM).

Proses judicial review niscaya sangat diperlukan untuk menjamin pagar-pagar konstitusi sebagai dasar negara tidak tertabrak dan hak warga negara tidak terlanggar. Bagi negara Republik Indonesia, MPR-lah yang paling berhak melakukan fungsi ini, karena posisinya sebagai lembaga tertinggi negara, dan pada saat yang sama dapat menjaga pergesekan antar lembaga negara. Namun melalui ketetapannya, dan diamanati oleh undang-undang itu sendiri, sebentar lagi Indonesia akan memiliki sebuah badan yang bertindak sebagai penjaga konstitusi, yaitu mahkamah konstitusi.

Kehadiran mahkamah konstitusi ini diharapkan dapat membawa titik cerah pembangunan perundangan yang ditujukan untuk mensejahterakan semua warga negara, dan pada saat yang sama menyediakan mekanisme kontrol masyarakat terhadap produk perundangan negara.

Badan Peradilan Untuk Semua: Meningkatkan Partisipasi Masyarakat

Dalam konteks masyarakat awam, masih ditemukan sekat-sekat struktural dan kultural dalam penegakan hukum di Indonesia. Sekat struktural muncul akibat birokrasi hukum danperadilan yang kurang bersahabat dengan rakyat awam. Ada tendensi proses hukum terkesan mahal dan kalau perlu dihindari. Mungkin ini berita buruk bagi Indonesia, karena institusi peradilan adalah sebuah fenomena peradaban bangsa. Semakin beradab sebuah bangsa, seharusnya semakin berfungsilah institusi-institusinya. Dan demikian puila sebaliknya.

Sekat kultural pula disebabkan karena persepsi-persepsi yang muncul berkaitan dengan praktik peradilan selama ini. Keadilan menjadi barang mahal yang hanya dapat dibeli oleh pangkat dan uang. Dalam kaitan ini, penemuan hukum mengenai gugatan masyarakat sebagai warga negara (citizen lawsuit) menawarkan sebuah harapan dalam ketidakpastian. Saat ini, sudah ada beberapa pilihan bagi masyarakat untuk mengajukan gugatan yang bersifat melindungi kepentingan publik; baik itu melalui gugatan perwakilan kelompok (Class action) maupun gugatan warga negara.

Gugatan perwakilan kelompok  diatur oleh peraturan Mahkamah Agung (Perma) No. 1/2002. Pasal 2 Perma menyatakan bahwa gugatan dapat diajukan dengan mepergunakan tata cara gugatan perwakilan kelompok apabila:

1. Jumlah anggota kelompok sedemikian banyak sehingga tidaklah efektif dan efisien apabila gugatan dilakukan secara sendiri-sendiri atau secara bersama-sama dalam satu gugatan
2. Terdapat kesamaan fakta atau peristiwa dan kesamaan dasar hukum yang digunakan yang bersifat substansial, serta terdapat kesamaan jenis tuntutan di antara wakil kelompok dengan anggota kelompoknya;
3. Wakil kelompok memiliki kejujuran dan kesungguhan untuk melindungi kepentingan anggota kelompok yang diwakilinya;
4. Hakim dapat menganjurkan kepada wakil kelompok untuk melakukan penggantian pengacara jika pengacara melakukan tindakan-tindakan yang bertentangan dengan kewajiban membela dan melindungi kepentingan anggota kelompoknya.

Gugatan secara perwakilan kelompok ini telah dipertimbangkan dalam kasus-kasus yang menyangkut kepentingan publik seperti kasus divestasi Indosat, penggusuran Sekolah di Jakarta, kenaikan tariff listrik, telepon dan BBM, danjuga dalam kasus operasi militer di Aceh. Meskipun hasil dari berbagai gugatan ini bermacam-macam, namun keadaan ini telah memberikan sebuah harapan menuju pembangunan sistem hukum yang melindungi kepentingan publik.

Gugatan warga negara (citizen lawsuit) mendapat tempat dalam sistem hukum nasional untuk pertama kalinya dalam kasus gugatan terhadap pemerintah atas terlantarnya pengungsi di Nunukan. Dalam amarnya penetapannya, majelis hakim yang diketuai oleh Andi Samsan Nganro saat menerima gugatan citizen law suit kasus tragedi kemanusian Nunukan menguraikan:

‘Setiap warga negara, tanpa kecuali, mempunyai hak membela kepentingan umum. Dengan demikian, setiap warga negara atas nama kepentingan umum dapat menggugat negara atau pemerintah, atau siapapun yang melakukan perbuatan melawan hukum yang nyata-nyata merugikan kepentingan publik dan kesejahteraan luas.’

Advokasi Tragedi Kemanusiaan Nunukan  menggugat penyelenggara negara, antara lain presiden, wakil presiden, Menakertrans, Men Kesra, dan beberapa pejabat lain yang terkait dengan masalah itu. Mereka dinilai telah lalai atau dengan sengaja melupakan kewajibannya untuk menangani masalah buruh migran Indonesia, khususnya yang dipulangkan dari Malaysia pada 2002 (Hukum Online).

Amar  atau pertimbangan penetapan tersebut tidak saja bermakna diterimanya gugatan citizen law suit oleh majelis hakim dan dimulainya pemeriksaan materiil gugatan. Yang lebih penting dari itu, amar penetapan ini merupakan  penemuan ‘paradigma hukum’ baru yang tentunya membuka pandangan baru dalam khasanah hukum di Indonesia. Hal ini juga merupakan langkah maju yang tidak hanya sekadar ‘terobosan hukum’, melainkan perubahan terhadap sudut pandang hukum itu sendiri.

Terobosan hukum ini paling tidak memberikan titik cerah harapan untuk mewujudkan cita-cita hukum untuk semua. Dan perkara gugatan untuk kepentingan umum tidak dapat lagi disekat untuk mendapatkan keadilan.

Kesimpulan

Sampai pada bagian ini, paper sederhana ini ingin menegaskan sebuah keharusan sejarah dan cita-cita kemerdekaan serta amanat reformasi, bahwa agenda reformasi perlu disiapkan dan dijalani demi menempatkan hukum pada tempatnya, yaitu hukum yang adil dan berkeadilan, yang dimiliki dan ditujukan untuk semua warg negara Indonesia. Sementara itu, reformasi hukum ini juga harus diiringi serentak dengan agenda reformasi di bidang lain seperti  politik, ekonomi, pendidikan, sosial dan budaya, karena hukum hanyalah salah satu institusi masyarakat kita yang dependen dengan skenarion negara secara keseluruhan.

Bahan Bacaan

• Ahmad Ibrahim & Ahilemah Joned. 1995 (2^nd Ed.). The Malaysian Legal System. Kuala Lumpur. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
• Hazairin. 1985 (2^nd Ed.). Tujuh Serangkai Tentang Hukum. Jakarta. Bina Aksara.
• Busthanul Arifin. 1996. Pelembagaan Hukum Islam di Indonesia. Jakarta. Gema Insani Press.
• Lindsey, Timothy. 1999. Indonesia Law and Society. NSW. The Federation Press.
• Rifyal Ka’bah. 1999. Hukum Islam di Indonesia. Jakarta. Universitas Yarsi .
• Stein, Peter. 1999. Roman Law in European History. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press.
• Fajrul Falaakh, M. Kemandirian dan Tanggungjawab Kekuasaan Kehakiman di Indonesia. Artikel tanpa tanggal di situs Komisi Hukum Nasional RI www.komisihukum.go.id
• Frans Hendra Winarta. Dimensi Moral profesi Advokat dan Pekerja Bantuan Hukum. Artikel tanpa tanggal di situs Komisi Hukum Nasional RI www.komisihukum.go.id